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The Reading Culture of Early Christianity

Introduction

In the world of biblical scholarship, the topic of textual variants in the New Testament is a fascinating one, sparking considerable discussion and study. These variants – differences in wording among various manuscripts – provide us with insights into the complex history of the text’s transmission over centuries. More importantly, through New Testament Textual Criticism, textual scholars are attempting to ascertain the original wording of the original texts. This brief look into the intricacies of textual variants in the New Testament will help illuminate how these differences came about and their significance in biblical interpretation.

Understanding Textual Variants

Textual variants refer to differences in the biblical text among the thousands of New Testament manuscripts available today. These differences could be as minor as a single letter or as significant as an entire verse. Some of these variants arose from simple human error, while others may have been intentional changes made by scribes over time.

The Origin of Textual Variants

Scribal Errors

The first broad category of textual variants is scribal errors. Because the New Testament was copied by hand for centuries before the advent of the printing press in the 15th century C.E., it’s not surprising that errors crept into the texts. These can be classified into two types: unintentional and intentional errors.

Unintentional Errors

Unintentional errors include simple mistakes like misspellings, repetition of words (dittography), or accidental omission of words (haplography). These errors occurred due to factors like tiredness, distraction, or misreading on the part of the scribe.

Homoioteleuton: This term refers to a situation where two lines in a text end with the same or similar words or phrases. Sometimes, a scribe’s eye might accidentally jump from one line to the other, causing him to unintentionally skip over and omit the intervening text. This type of error is especially likely when a scribe is copying from a manuscript where lines are not clearly demarcated.
Haplography: This term refers to the unintentional omission of a letter or word that appears twice in close proximity. For instance, if a scribe encounters the word “the” twice in quick succession (“the the”), they might mistakenly copy it only once, leading to a minor variation in the text.
Dittography: The opposite of haplography, dittography is the unintentional repetition of a letter, word, or phrase by a scribe. For instance, if the original text said “Jesus wept,” a scribe might mistakenly write “Jesus wept wept.”
Parablepsis: This refers to an error made when a scribe’s eye skips over a section of text, leading to an unintentional omission. This is often due to similar endings of words or sentences, leading the scribe’s eye to inadvertently jump ahead.
Metathesis: Metathesis refers to the swapping of the position of letters within a word or words within a sentence. For example, a scribe may mistakenly write “form” instead of “from”, or “God is love” instead of “Love is God.”
Confusion of Similar Letters: In Greek, some letters look very similar, such as epsilon (ε) and sigma (ς), or alpha (α) and delta (δ). This could easily lead to a scribe confusing one for the other.
Fusion and Separation of Words: In early Greek manuscripts, words were often written in scriptio continua, which means without spaces between them. This could cause a scribe to misread where one word ended and another began, leading to the fusion of two words into one or the separation of one word into two.
Homophony: Homophony refers to the confusion between words that sound alike but are spelled differently, which can lead to substitution errors. This is more likely to occur in a context where a scribe is copying a text read aloud.

Each of these errors underlines the human aspect of the transmission of the New Testament text. They also highlight the meticulous detective work that textual critics undertake in their quest to understand and reconstruct the original text.

Intentional Errors

Intentional changes, on the other hand, were deliberate alterations made by the scribes. They often made these changes to resolve perceived contradictions, harmonize passages, or clarify the meaning of a text.

Harmonization: Scribes often tried to reconcile passages that seemed to contradict each other or varied between the Gospels. They might alter the wording in one passage to match the wording in another. For instance, in Luke 11:2-4 and Matthew 6:9-13, the Lord’s Prayer is worded slightly differently. Some later manuscripts of Luke modify the prayer to match Matthew’s version more closely, an instance of harmonization.
Liturgical Adjustments: Scribes sometimes made changes to facilitate the use of New Testament writings in worship services. These alterations might include modifying the language to fit liturgical standards or changing pronouns to be more inclusive.
Clarification of Ambiguities: If a scribe found a word or phrase ambiguous or difficult to understand, they might add an explanation or substitute a more understandable term. For example, Mark 1:2 in some later manuscripts changes “in Isaiah the prophet” to “in the prophets” since the following quotation is a combination of texts from Malachi and Isaiah, not from Isaiah alone.
Conflation: In an attempt to include as many textual traditions as possible, some scribes would merge different readings into one, resulting in a longer text. This is often seen in the Byzantine text-type, where variant readings from earlier text types were combined.
Doctrinal Alterations: Though less common, there are instances where scribes might have altered the text to align it more closely with their own theological views or the doctrines of their time. These changes, however, are usually minor and do not affect the central tenets of Christian faith.

These intentional changes reveal the scribes’ roles not merely as copyists but as active participants in the interpretation and transmission of the biblical text. They also illustrate the dynamic nature of the New Testament text in its early centuries of transmission.

Textual Families

The New Testament has been preserved in a myriad of manuscripts over centuries, leading to the development of different textual families. These families—Alexandrian, Western, Byzantine, and Caesarean—each represent a unique group of manuscripts with shared characteristics. Delving into the specifics of these families, we can appreciate the diversity and the vast richness of the New Testament’s textual tradition. These families represent different geographical locations and periods of transmission, each with its distinct set of textual variants.

Alexandrian Text Family

Named after Alexandria in Egypt, the Alexandrian text family is generally considered the oldest and most reliable by most textual critics. This text type is characterized by its shorter readings, perceived as a closer reflection of the original text since scribes tended to add to rather than subtract from their copies.

The two most significant manuscripts representing this family are Codex Vaticanus and Codex Sinaiticus, both dating from the 4th century C.E. Alexandrian readings are also found in many of the earliest papyrus manuscripts, some dating back to the 2nd and 3rd centuries C.E.

Alexandrian manuscripts have a refined, precise, and polished language, reflecting the scholarly culture of Alexandria. They are marked by a careful preservation of grammatical constructions, offering a straightforward reading of the text. It’s important to note, however, that while the Alexandrian text type is often preferred by scholars, no single text type holds a monopoly on original readings. Each has its unique value in the process of textual criticism.

Western Text Family

The Western text family, also known as the Old Latin or European text type, is characterized by its tendency towards paraphrase and expansion, often including explanatory details not found in other text types. This makes it generally longer than the Alexandrian text.

This text type has a wide geographical spread, found in Greek manuscripts, Old Latin translations, and quotations by Latin Church Fathers. The most notable manuscript in this family is Codex Bezae, an unusual Greek-Latin manuscript from the 5th century C.E.

Despite its expansions, the Western text isn’t considered less valuable. Its readings provide insights into the understanding and interpretation of the New Testament among early Christian communities in the West.

Byzantine Text Family

The Byzantine text family, also known as the Majority Text, is the most numerous of all text types, owing to the fact that it became the standard text of the Greek-speaking church after the 4th century C.E. It’s named after Byzantium (modern-day Istanbul), the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire.

Byzantine texts are characterized by their harmonization of parallel passages, grammatical smoothing, and conflation of different readings. This family is seen by some scholars as less reliable due to its later emergence and its propensity for textual expansion.

Despite these criticisms, the Byzantine text was the basis for the Textus Receptus, the Greek text used for many early translations of the New Testament into European languages, including the King James Version.

Caesarean Text Family

The Caesarean text family is the most debated among the four. Its existence was proposed based on a group of manuscripts that seemed to share common readings not found in the other text types.

Named after Caesarea, where it was presumably used, this text type is thought to represent an earlier form of the text than the Byzantine but later than the Alexandrian and Western. Significant manuscripts include the Codex Koridethi and minuscule 565. This text type is also represented in some Old Armenian and Georgian manuscripts.

The Caesarean text is of particular interest in the Gospels, especially in Mark, where it often agrees with the older Alexandrian type against the Byzantine and Western types.

The Significance of Textual Variants

Textual variants are significant for several reasons. Primarily, they offer us insights into the history and transmission of the New Testament. Studying these variants allows us to understand how the New Testament text evolved and how it was understood by different communities at different times.

Importantly, most of these variants do not significantly affect the core doctrines of the Christian faith. Despite the differences, there is remarkable consistency in the essential teachings across the manuscript tradition.

The Role of Textual Criticism

Textual criticism is the discipline that studies these textual variants. Its goal is to determine, as closely as possible, the original wording of the New Testament. It does this by comparing and contrasting the available manuscripts, considering factors such as the age of the manuscript, the geographical distribution of a reading, and the tendencies of particular scribes or manuscript families. Between the 1881 Westcott and Hort Greek New Testament and the 2012 28th edition of the Nestle Aland Greek New Testament, we have restored 99.99% of what was in the originals.

The Holy Spirit plays a crucial role in guiding believers’ understanding and interpretation of the text amidst these textual variants. While the Holy Spirit does not erase these variants, He aids in discerning the fundamental truths contained within the Scriptures, regardless of textual differences.

Influence of Linguistics on Textual Variants

Linguistic changes over time also contributed to textual variants. As the Greek language evolved, scribes sometimes updated the language in the manuscripts to make them more understandable to contemporary readers. This process, called “conflation,” could lead to the blending of different textual readings into a single text.

The Role of Early Church Fathers

The writings of the Early Church Fathers can also help us understand textual variants. These early Christian theologians often quoted or referenced New Testament passages in their writings. By comparing their quotes to existing manuscripts, we can get a better sense of how the New Testament text appeared in earlier centuries.

The Influence of Theology and Doctrine

At times, theological or doctrinal concerns may have influenced textual variants. Scribes, often influenced by the religious culture of their time, might subtly change texts to align more closely with certain theological views. While these changes do not alter the core beliefs of Christianity, they offer a window into the early church’s theological debates.

Codex Sinaiticus and Codex Vaticanus

Some of the most important manuscripts in New Testament textual criticism are Codex Sinaiticus and Codex Vaticanus. These fourth-century codices are part of the Alexandrian text family and are among the earliest complete copies of the New Testament. Their value in textual criticism cannot be overstated, and they often serve as primary sources for resolving textual variants.

The Importance of Papyrus Manuscripts

The discovery of early papyrus manuscripts has greatly enhanced our understanding of textual variants. These manuscripts, dating from the 2nd to the 7th century C.E., often contain older readings and can shed light on the development of the text in its earliest stages.

The New Testament papyri are a group of manuscripts written on papyrus, an ancient writing material made from the pith of the papyrus plant. The papyri are particularly valuable for biblical scholarship and textual criticism due to their early dating. At present, we have 5,898 Papyri Greek New Testament manuscripts. Here, we will explore some significant papyri: P4/64/67, P45, P46, P47, P52, P72, P66, P75, P90, and P137.

P4/64/67

Papyrus 4 (P4), Papyrus 64 (P64), and Papyrus 67 (P67) are parts of the same codex, containing portions of the Gospel of Luke and Matthew. Discovered at different times and places, their identification as parts of the same manuscript was a significant realization in papyrology. Dated to 150-175 C.E., these papyri offer insights into the text of the Gospels during this period.

P45

Papyrus 45 (P45) is a fragmentary early New Testament manuscript which contains portions of all four Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles. It is part of the Chester Beatty Papyri and dates to 175-225 C.E. Despite its fragmentary state, P45’s contribution to understanding the textual transmission of the New Testament is notable.

P46

Papyrus 46 (P46) is another manuscript from the Chester Beatty Papyri. Dating to around 110-150 C.E., it is one of the oldest manuscripts of Paul’s Epistles. Although not complete, P46 contains most of the Pauline corpus, offering valuable data for the text of these letters in the early 3rd century.

P47

Papyrus 47 (P47) is the third manuscript from the Chester Beatty Papyri. It contains a portion of the Book of Revelation and dates to 200-225 C.E. It is one of the earliest and most substantial manuscripts for Revelation, making it particularly valuable for textual criticism of this often difficult-to-interpret book.

P52

Papyrus 52 (P52) is a small fragment from the Gospel of John, often called the John Rylands Papyrus. Despite its small size, P52 is of immense importance due to its early date. Estimated to have been written around 110-150 C.E., it is the earliest extant New Testament manuscript. Its text closely aligns with later manuscripts, demonstrating the stability of the New Testament text over time.

P66

Papyrus 66 (P66) is an early manuscript of the Gospel of John, dating to around 110-150 C.E. It is a significant witness to the text of John’s Gospel in the early 3rd century and forms part of the Bodmer Papyri.

P72

Papyrus 72 (P72) is an early to middle 3rd-century manuscript containing the Epistles of Jude and Peter, making it the earliest copy of these books. Its text often agrees with the later Alexandrian text-type, giving it notable importance in textual criticism.

P75

Papyrus 75 (P75) is another part of the Bodmer Papyri, containing the Gospels of Luke and John. Dated to around 175-225 C.E., it is noted for its textual closeness to Codex Vaticanus, a later but significant manuscript of the Greek Bible.

P90

Papyrus 90 (P90) is a fragment of the Gospel of John, dating to 100-150 C.E. Its small size belies its importance. Like P52, P90 shows the stability of the New Testament text in the early centuries.

P137

Papyrus 137 (P137) is one of the newest discoveries, a fragment of the Gospel of Mark that dates to 100-150 C.E. While its contribution to textual criticism is still being evaluated, it adds to the growing corpus of early New Testament papyri.

The Challenges and Rewards of Textual Criticism

Engaging with textual variants can be challenging but also deeply rewarding. It requires a grasp of ancient languages, a keen understanding of historical and cultural contexts, and a critical eye for detail. Yet, it can deepen our appreciation for the Scriptures and reinforce our confidence in their reliability. The textual variants, far from undermining the New Testament’s trustworthiness, bear witness to its remarkable preservation over the centuries.

Conclusion

The intricacies of textual variants in the New Testament are indeed a complex field of study. These variants, the result of a multitude of factors over centuries of text transmission, offer rich insights into the historical and cultural contexts of the New Testament era. While they present challenges, they do not detract from the essential truths of the Christian faith. The task of the diligent scholar and the faithful believer, aided by the Holy Spirit, is to navigate these intricacies in the quest to better understand and live out the teachings of the New Testament.

About the Author

EDWARD D. ANDREWS (AS in Criminal Justice, BS in Religion, MA in Biblical Studies, and MDiv in Theology) is CEO and President of Christian Publishing House. He has authored over 220+ books. In addition, Andrews is the Chief Translator of the Updated American Standard Version (UASV).