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Article

A Comparative Study of the Growth and Nutrient Removal Effects of Five Green Microalgae in Simulated Domestic Sewage

by
Li Ji
1,
Qili Ge
1,
Yuan Li
1,
Yifan Gao
2 and
Shulian Xie
3,*
1
School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Taiyuan University of Science and Technology, Taiyuan 030024, China
2
School of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Taiyuan University of Science and Technology, Taiyuan 030021, China
3
Shanxi Key Laboratory for Research and Development of Regional Plants, School of Life Science, Shanxi University, Taiyuan 030006, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Water 2021, 13(24), 3613; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13243613
Submission received: 3 November 2021 / Revised: 5 December 2021 / Accepted: 9 December 2021 / Published: 16 December 2021
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Pollution and Its Impact on Human Health)
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Abstract

:
Microalgae have shown great potential in wastewater treatment. This study evaluates the growth and nutrient removal characteristics of five different microalgae strains, namely Chlorella vulgaris, Tetradesmus obliquus, Parachlorella kessleri, Hydrodictyon sp., and Scenedesmus quadricauda, in simulated domestic wastewater. The five microalgae could adapt to wastewater, but the growth potential and nitrogen removal capacity were species dependent. The nutrient removal effect of the microalgae used in this experiment was about 50% in the first two days. Parachlorella kessleri, selected from the five strains of green algae, shows good potential in removing nutrients from simulated domestic wastewater. For the simulated domestic sewage treated with Parachlorella kessleri, the chemical oxygen demand was almost completely reduced, and ammonium-N (NH4-N) and total nitrogen (TN) removal exceeded 70% at the end of the 10-day treatment. Total phosphorus (TP) removal was slightly worse, more than 65%. Parachlorella kessleri showed the best growth in sewage with the highest biomass reaching 366.67 mg L−1 and the highest specific growth rate reaching 0.538 d−1. This study can provide a reference for selecting suitable microalgae species to treat actual domestic sewage.

1. Introduction

Rapid urbanization brings a significant amount of wastewater emission and generates more environmental risks [1,2,3]. Domestic sewage is one of the main sources of water pollution, as it can easily cause the eutrophication of water bodies [4], and has aroused great public concern in recent years [2,5]. Domestic sewage is rich in organic matter and nutrients, and it is derived from various scattered sources [6]. The discharge of domestic sewage generated by human activities in urban and rural areas can directly or indirectly result in the serious pollution of surface water and groundwater [7,8].
Conventional physical- and chemical-based methods for sewage, such as oxidation ditch, SBR, A/O, A2/O, ion exchange, and coagulation precipitation, require a combination of multiple reaction components and large energy inputs to realize nitrification and denitrification [9,10]. These processes generally entail high investment, complex operations and operational costs, and they can easily lead to secondary pollution [10,11]. Considering the capacity to remove high concentrations of nutrients, in particular, nitrogen and phosphorus [5,12,13,14], microalgae have been utilized to explore an economically sustainable and environmentally friendly approach to effectively treat wastewater from different sources [15,16].
The algae-based approach has been widely used in wastewater treatment [17]. Sufficient quantities of various nutrients in domestic sewage, such as N, P, and carbonaceous substances, are used to support the growth of algae and thus lower the concentrations of these compounds in water [18,19,20]. The primary advantage of integrating microalgae is their fast growth and strong adaptability in wastewater [21]. Both inorganic and organic nitrogen present in ammonia, nitrite, and nitrates can be utilized by microalgae in wastewater [2,22,23]. All microalgae have potential to remove or transform heavy metals and other contaminants from wastewater [19,24,25,26]. Secondly, large amounts of biomass are simultaneously produced as an alternative to the production of third generation biofuels [14,27,28,29], and as value-added ingredients [2,30,31]. Furthermore, microalgae also represent a promising method for CO2 fixation and O2 generation by photosynthesis to achieve carbon emission reductions [32,33,34]. Chlorella vulgaris, Tetradesmus obliquus, Parachlorella kessleri, Hydrodictyon sp., and Scenedesmus quadricauda have shown good application effects in pig wastewater [35,36,37], fishery wastewater [38,39], brewery wastewater [40], and as a secondary effluent of sewage plants [41,42]. Therefore, studies should be carried out to determine the effectiveness of a broad variety of algae species, which is of great value to microalgae usage for the treatment of wastewater from different sources.
The aim of this study is to analyze and discuss current trends in the use of microalgae biotechnology for the bioremediation of artificial domestic sewage. Specifically, the objectives are to evaluate the growth and consumption of COD, nitrogen, and phosphorus from simulated domestic wastewater by five commonly used green algal species: C. vulgaris, T. obliquus, P. kessleri, Hydrodictyon sp., and S. quadricauda. Microalgae species with the highest efficiency in nutrient removal and good growth are identified. The results of this study will aid the future use of microalgae-based biological methods for domestic wastewater treatment.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Microalgae Species and Pre-Culture Conditions

C. vulgaris (FACHB-8), T. obliquus (FACHB-416), P. kessleri (FACHB-729), Hydrodictyon sp. (FACHB-735), and S. quadricauda (FACHB-1297) were obtained from the Culture Collection of Algae, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences (FACHB-collection, Wuhan, China). Before the experiment, the algae were pre-cultivated with a BG11 medium in flasks under a 12 h:12 h light/dark cycle under an incident light intensity of 2000 lux. The temperature of the culture room was maintained at 25 °C.

2.2. Synthetic Wastewater

Synthetic wastewater was used to formulate simulated domestic wastewater. The composition and concentration of trace elements in the synthetic wastewater were consistent with those in Blue-Green Medium (BG11). The composition of the synthetic wastewater was as follows (mg L−1): glucose 400, NH4SO4 189, NaNO3 243, KH2PO4 43.90, NaHCO3 100, NaCl 64, MgSO4·7H2O 185, FeSO4·7H2O 9.10, CaCl2 25, H3BO3 2.86, CuSO4·5H2O 0.08, and CoCl2·6H2O 0.05. The water quality indexes of synthetic domestic sewage were measured according to the Chinese state standard testing methods (Administration, 2010). The initial pH of synthetic wastewater was approximately 7.5. Before the experiment, the synthetic wastewater was sterilized by ultraviolet light on a single-person, single-sided horizontal purification workbench (SW-CJ-1G, Suzhou, China) for 30 min.

2.3. Microalgal Batch Cultivation and Experimental Set-Up

All five microalgae growing in the BG11 medium were collected via centrifugation at 6000 rpm for 5 min when they were in the logarithmic growth phase. Pellets were washed with deionized water and centrifuged a second time at 6000 rpm for 5 min. Pellets were then suspended in a small volume of wastewater and subsequently inoculated to 250 mL flasks containing 200 mL of wastewater.

2.4. Analytical Methods

2.4.1. Determination of Microalgal Growth

For microalgal growth determination, biomass production was measured as the dry algal cell weight (DW) concentration, according to the Chinese state standard monitoring method (Monitoring Method of Water and Wastewater, 2002) [43]. The algae liquid was shaken manually; 10 mL of the algae liquid was taken each time; and the cells were collected by filtration with a 0.45 μm cellulose acetate membrane to determine the microalgae biomass. Then, the blank cellulose acetate membrane and the cellulose acetate membrane with algae cells were dried at 105 °C for 24 h, and the dry weights were respectively weighed.
The microalgal concentration (mg L−1) was calculated according to the following Formula (1):
Microalgal   concentration = ( DWt i − DWt 0 ) / V
where DWti and DWt0 refer to the dry weight of filters with microalgal cells and dry weight of blank filters, respectively. V is the volume of microalgal culture.
The specific growth rate (µ) of microalgae was calculated according to the following Equation (2):
µ = ( lnDWt 2 − lnDWt 1 ) /   ( t 2 − t 1 )
where DWt2 and DWt1 refer to the dry weight of microalgal biomass per unit volume (mg L−1) at time t2 and t1, respectively.

2.4.2. Determination of Water Quality

For each experiment, 10 mL of the algae mixture was centrifuged at 6000 rpm for 5 min, and the supernatant was filtered through a 0.45 µm cellulose acetate membrane. Approximately 8 mL of the filtered supernatant was collected. The filtered supernatant was then used to determine COD, NH4-N, TN, and TP. COD, NH4-N, TN, and TP were analyzed by the dichromate method, salicylic acid spectrophotometry, alkaline potassium persulfate digestion UV spectrophotometric method, and ammonium molybdate spectrophotometric method, respectively (Monitoring Method of Water and Wastewater, 2002) [43]. The pH of wastewater was measured using a portable multiparameter analyzer FE-28 (Shanghai Mettler Toledo Instruments Co., Ltd., Shanghai, China).

2.4.3. Determination of Chlorophyll Fluorescence

Chlorophyll fluorescence parameters were measured according to Markou et al. [44] using a portable PAM fluorometer AquaPen-C AP-C 100 (Photon Systems Instruments, Czech Republic). The rapid information provided by the fluorescence of living chlorophyll reflects the utilization and dissipation of excitation energy by the photosystem II (PSII). For each measurement, the cuvette was filled with 3 mL of the algae culture, and the cuvette was closed with a stopper. After 15 min of dark adaptation at room temperature, the values of Fv/Fo and Fv/Fm were automatically obtained via the PAM fluorometer using the OJIP test.
The chlorophyll fluorescence parameters were as follows:
F0: initial fluorescence (F50 µs, fluorescence intensity at 50 µs). Refers to the fluorescence when all reaction centers of PSII are in a fully open state, and all non-photochemical processes are at a minimum under dark adaptation.
Fm: maximal fluorescence intensity. Refers to the fluorescence when all reaction centers of PSII are in a completely closed state (that is, no photochemical reaction is carried out) and all non-photochemical processes are at a minimum in the dark adaptation state.
Fv: maximal variable fluorescence (Fm-F0). Refers to the maximum variable fluorescence when all non-photochemical processes are at a minimum in the dark adaptation state.
Fv/Fo: potential activity of PSII. Although Fv/Fo is not a direct efficiency indicator, it is sensitive to changes in efficiency.
Fv/Fm: maximum quantum yield of PSII photochemistry ((Fm − F0)/Fm, 0 < Fv/Fm < 1). Reflects the quantum yield when all PSII reaction centers are in an open state.

2.4.4. Statistical Analysis

Measurements were expressed as mean ± standard deviation from three independent experiments. Differences between means were determined using t-tests and one-way analysis of variance in SPSS25 software. A confidence level of 95% was used to assess significance; the p-value threshold for significance was 0.05.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Nutrient Removal and COD Decrease Efficiency of Five Green Microalgae Species in Artificial Domestic Sewage

In this study, the efficacy of different microalgae species for the remediation of wastewater was evaluated based on COD decrease and TP, TN, and NH4-N removal rates. Figure 1 shows the pollutant removal profiles of the five algae cultivated in artificial domestic sewage. The COD of the original wastewater was approximately 395.00 mg L−1, and the original total phosphorus concentration was 11.23 mg L−1. The original ammonia concentration was approximately 47.22 mg L−1, and the original total nitrogen concentration was approximately 50.56 mg L−1. All microalgae were capable of removing nitrogen and phosphorus from artificial domestic sewage. The pollutant concentrations in all experiments decreased rapidly within 2 d of cultivation. The nutrient concentrations decreased slightly from the 2nd to the 6th day. During the last 4 d of cultivation, the pollutant concentrations did not change significantly (Figure 1). These five microalgae species differed in their ability to remove nitrogen and phosphorus. T. obliquus and P. kessleri removed more nitrogen and phosphorus in the first 4 d compared with the other three microalgae. T. obliquus achieved removal rates of 69.46% and 61.33% of ammonia nitrogen and total phosphorus in the first 4 d, respectively (Table 1). T. obliquus and P. kessleri could remove 60.06% and 59.39% of total phosphorus, respectively. After 4 d of cultivation, T. obliquus and P. kessleri could reduce 73.42% and 75.95% of COD, respectively. These two microalgae could remove greater amounts of pollutants compared with the other three microalgae. After culture for 10 d until the end of the experiment, the removal rates of the different pollutants by Chlorella vulgaris, P. kessleri, T. obliquus, Hydrodictyon sp., and S. quadricauda in the simulated domestic wastewater were ammonia nitrogen: 72.15, 75.71, 78.76, 67.62, and 78.35%; total nitrogen: 73.46, 75.65, 74.46, 67.12, and 77.50%; and total phosphorus: 70.57, 66.79, 69.64, 73.60, and 75.33%, respectively. Except Hydrodictyon sp., the remaining 4 species of microalgae can reduce COD by more than 80%. (Table 1). The experimental results show that all microalgae species, except for Hydrodictyon sp., can effectively remove nutrients.
To date, extensive research has been conducted on the removal of nitrogen from sewage by microalgae. Sydney et al. [45] cultured C. vulgaris in synthetic sewage for nitrogen removal. After 14 d of cultivation, the nitrogen removal efficiency reached 73.77%. A recent study showed that the nitrogen removal of C. vulgaris was greater than 98% after 25 d [46]. To enhance the removal efficiency of nitrogen and phosphorus, microalgae are often cultivated for longer periods in experiments. Obviously, the ability of microalgae to remove pollutants in sewage is reduced if the amount of sewage discharged is large. Microalgae tend to store excess phosphorus for growth and biosynthesis. Therefore, phosphorus is over-absorbed by microalgae in the early stages of growth [19,30]. The removal efficiency of ammonium and total nitrogen decreased with the growth of P. kessleri, which is consistent with the results of previous experiments showing that more rapid increases in biomass result in more rapid nitrogen removal and indicates that the removal of nitrogen stems from assimilation by the algae. However, during the cultivation process, the pH increased with cultivation time, which may lead to the volatilization of ammonia [47]. Simulating the imbalance of nitrogen/phosphorus in domestic wastewater may limit the removal process of assimilated nutrients. The different ratio of N/P has an important impact on the removal effect of pollutants. According to research, the higher the ratio of N/P, the better the removal effect of nutrients. Research shows that when the ratio of N/P is 5, the removal effect of nitrogen and phosphorus is relatively good [48,49]. Stumm’s empirical formula for microalgae is C106H263O110N16P (the ratio of nitrogen to phosphorus is 7.2:1), which also provides a reference for the ratio of nitrogen to phosphorus in sewage; however, the average composition of microalgae cells depends on the strain and growth conditions [20]. This also confirms the excessive absorption of nitrogen and phosphorus during microalgae cultivation.
In the simulated domestic wastewater, P. kessleri, S. quadricauda, and T. obliquus had a good nitrogen removal effect in the first 4 d. S. quadricauda and T. obliquus showed strong potential activity during photosynthesis. S. quadricauda and T. obliquus had strong nitrogen removal activity compared with the three other microalgae, indicating that the nitrogen removal ability is species dependent [2]. This indicates that these two microalgae could be used for nitrogen removal when the amount of sewage discharge is large; they could also reduce the time needed to cultivate microalgae.

3.2. Growth Profiles of Five Green Microalgae Species in Simulated Domestic Wastewater

Five green microalgae species, C. vulgaris, T. obliquus, P. kessleri, Hydrodictyon sp., and S. quadricauda, were cultivated in artificial domestic wastewater. The growth curves of the five microalgae in artificial domestic sewage are shown in Figure 2a. All five microalgae could grow wastewater without a lag phase, which indicates that all these microalgae adapted well to artificial domestic sewage. The biomass concentrations of C. vulgaris, T. obliquus, P. kessleri, Hydrodictyon sp., and S. quadricauda significantly increased from approximately 100 mg L−1 to 413.33, 220.00, 376.67, 273.33, and 213.33 mg L−1, respectively, after 3 d of cultivation (Figure 2a). After 5 d of cultivation in simulated domestic wastewater, the biomass was in equilibrium. By the end of the cultivation, the biomass concentration of these five microalgae decreased to 206.67, 76.67, 106.67, 70.00, and 16.67 mg L−1, respectively (Figure 2a). In the experiment, all five species of microalgae reached the logarithmic growth phase in the first 3 d.
The growth of microalgae requires sufficient amounts of nitrogen and phosphorus, and the addition of these elements in the absence of wastewater via fertilizer can significantly increase production costs [27]. Previous studies have shown that sewage is rich in nitrogen and phosphorus, and can thus provide an energy source for the growth of algae biomass. Consequently, microalgae can remove large amounts of nutrients, such as nitrogen and phosphorus [6]. Microalgae species vary in their degree of nitrogen and phosphorus utilization [5,6]. In this study, simulated domestic sewage was used as the nutrient source for the growth of microalgae, and the growth characteristics of five types of microalgae were studied. The maximum biomass concentration of these five microalgae cultivated in simulated domestic sewage ranged from 213.333 mg L−1 to 413.333 mg L−1 (Table 2). The highest biomass concentration of C. vulgaris in simulated domestic sewage is 413.333 mg L−1. The biomass concentration of C. vulgaris in this study is similar to that reported in previous studies [13,50]. The microalgae biomass of P. kessleri grows rapidly, reaching 376.667mg L−1 in three days [51]. The biomass concentration of the remaining three microalgae exceeded 200 mg L−1 on the third day [52,53,54]. However, the biomass concentrations of the four microalgae T. obliquus, P. kessleri, Hydrodictyon sp., and S. quadricauda were lower compared with previous studies. These five microalgae could successfully adapt to and survive in simulated domestic sewage.
The specific growth rate is an important factor reflecting the growth characteristics of algae that has become indispensable for studying the growth potential of microalgae. The specific growth rate of these five types of microalgae under simulated domestic wastewater conditions was analyzed [28], which indirectly reflects the growth status of different species of microalgae in simulated domestic wastewater (Table 2). The maximum specific growth rates of the five species of microalgae ranged from 0.282 d−1 to 0.577 d−1 (p < 0.05), which was similar to or lower than values for the same algae species or genera in previous studies [50,55]. Five kinds of microalgae can adapt well to synthetic wastewater. Although the five species of microalgae were cultured and grown in the same simulated domestic wastewater, their biomass and specific growth rate varied, which reflected differences in their ability to adapt to the wastewater environment. This is consistent with the results of previous studies [49,56]. The maximum specific growth rate of C. vulgaris and P. kessleri is much higher than that of T. obliquus and Hydrodictyon sp. (p < 0.05), which indicates that the former two have higher growth potential in simulated domestic wastewater.
Changes in the pH in the process of artificial domestic sewage treatment are shown in Figure 2b. For all five microalgae species, the water was alkaline, and the pH changed little. The change in pH is mainly affected by the physiological activities of algae. The algae photosynthesize and absorb CO2, disrupting the acid–base balance in the sewage and increasing the pH. The CO2 produced by the respiration of algae produces H+, which alters the balance between CO2, HCO3−, and CO32− in the water body and affects the pH. Algae photosynthesis consumes CO2 at a much greater rate than the rate at which CO2 is produced by respiration, resulting in an increase in the CO32−/HCO3− ratio and thus pH. The increase in pH during the cultivation of microalgae confirms that the culture environment in domestic sewage is alkaline. The increased pH results in the deposition of calcium and phosphorus, which also leads to a reduction in the phosphorus concentration in domestic sewage [56].

3.3. Chlorophyll Fluorescence of the Five Green Microalgae Species in Artificial Domestic Sewage

The microalgae in this study contain chloroplasts, which can convert carbon dioxide and water into organic substances, such as sugars, through chloroplast photosynthesis and light energy, and store energy. Through the fluorescence properties of chlorophyll, it reflects the growth state and activity of microalgae. The growth potential of five microalgae in artificial domestic wastewater was determined by analyzing the chlorophyll fluorescence characteristics of microalgae cells. The Fv/Fo and Fv/Fm values of all five species of microalgae increased in the first 4 days and reached relatively stable values on the fourth day (Figure 3). After the 4th day, the Fv/Fo and Fv/Fm values of microalgae have been increasing slowly. Although there was a slight decrease thereafter, the Fv/Fo and Fv/Fm values remained relatively high. The Fv/Fm value of all microalgae cells reached approximately 0.7 (Figure 3), which is similar to values previously reported for microalgae cultured in sewage [27,57]. The Fv/Fo and Fv/Fm values of P. kessleri and Hydrodictyon sp. were relatively low, and the Fv/Fo and Fv/Fm values of C. vulgaris, T. obliquus, and S. quadricauda were relatively high. The Fv/Fo and Fv/Fm values of these five microalgae increased in the first 2 d; however, significant declines in the Fv/Fo and Fv/Fm values after 2 d were observed for Chlorella vulgaris, P. kessleri, and Hydrodictyon sp. Fv/Fo indicates the potential activity of PSII, and Fv/Fm is the maximum photochemical quantum yield under dark conditions. Therefore, C. vulgaris and P. kessleri cultivated in artificial domestic wastewater, which had higher Fv/Fo and Fv/Fm values, showed better growth and metabolic activity. As the growth of microalgae in sewage is species dependent, the selection of appropriate algae species is critically important for optimizing domestic sewage treatment [20].

4. Conclusions

Five commonly used green algal species (C. vulgaris, P. kessleri, T. obliquus, Hydrodictyon sp., and S. quadricauda) could grow in simulated domestic wastewater. C. vulgaris and P. kessleri grew better compared to T. obliquus, Hydrodictyon sp., and S. quadricauda. The nutrient removal effects of P. kessleri and S. quadricauda from simulated domestic wastewater were high. Within 4 to 6 d of treatment, most of the nutrient elements were removed from the simulated domestic wastewater. Therefore, P. kessleri was superior to the other four microalgae in terms of its growth potential and pollutant removal effect, suggesting that it could be used for the removal of nutrients from domestic sewage.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, L.J.; methodology, Q.G. and S.X.; investigation, S.X. and Q.G.; writing—original draft preparation, Q.G. and Y.G.; formal analysis, Q.G.; writing—review and editing, L.J.; validation, Q.G., Y.G. and Y.L.; data curation, Q.G. and Y.L.; project administration, L.J.; visualization, Q.G. and S.X.; supervision, L.J.; funding acquisition, L.J. All authors approved the final manuscript. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This study was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China, grant number 42177057; the grants from CAS Key Laboratory of Soil Environment and Pollution Remediation, Institute of Soil Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences (SEPR2020-03); and the Doctoral Scientific Research Foundation for Taiyuan University of Science and Technology, grant number 20202069.

Acknowledgments

The authors thank Na Li, Wenwen Li, Yu Gao, and other laboratory members for algal culture and technical assistance.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Water 13 03613 g001 550
Figure 1. COD, ammonia nitrogen, total nitrogen, and total phosphorus removal of Chlorella vulgaris, Tetradesmus obliquus, Parachlorella kessleri, Hydrodictyon sp., and Scenedesmus quadricauda cultivated in the simulated domestic wastewater during 10 days of cultivation time. In the figure, (a–d) correspond to changes in the removal of COD, ammonia nitrogen, total nitrogen, and total phosphorus. All values are means ± standard deviation of three independent experiments (n = 3).
Figure 1. COD, ammonia nitrogen, total nitrogen, and total phosphorus removal of Chlorella vulgaris, Tetradesmus obliquus, Parachlorella kessleri, Hydrodictyon sp., and Scenedesmus quadricauda cultivated in the simulated domestic wastewater during 10 days of cultivation time. In the figure, (a–d) correspond to changes in the removal of COD, ammonia nitrogen, total nitrogen, and total phosphorus. All values are means ± standard deviation of three independent experiments (n = 3).
Water 13 03613 g001
Water 13 03613 g002 550
Figure 2. The biomass concentration (a) and pH (b) change of Chlorella vulgaris, Tetradesmus obliquus, Parachlorella kessleri, Hydrodictyon sp., and Scenedesmus quadricauda in the simulated domestic wastewater. All values are means ± standard deviation of three independent experiments (n = 3).
Figure 2. The biomass concentration (a) and pH (b) change of Chlorella vulgaris, Tetradesmus obliquus, Parachlorella kessleri, Hydrodictyon sp., and Scenedesmus quadricauda in the simulated domestic wastewater. All values are means ± standard deviation of three independent experiments (n = 3).
Water 13 03613 g002
Water 13 03613 g003 550
Figure 3. Fv/Fo (a) and Fv/Fm (b) of Chlorella vulgaris, Tetradesmus obliquus, Parachlorella kessleri, Hydrodictyon sp., and Scenedesmus quadricauda cultivated in the simulated domestic wastewater during 10 days of cultivation time. All values are means ± standard deviation of three independent experiments (n = 3).
Figure 3. Fv/Fo (a) and Fv/Fm (b) of Chlorella vulgaris, Tetradesmus obliquus, Parachlorella kessleri, Hydrodictyon sp., and Scenedesmus quadricauda cultivated in the simulated domestic wastewater during 10 days of cultivation time. All values are means ± standard deviation of three independent experiments (n = 3).
Water 13 03613 g003
Table
Table 1. The percentage of COD, nitrogen, and phosphorus removal by five microalgae throughout the 10-day treatment period.
Table 1. The percentage of COD, nitrogen, and phosphorus removal by five microalgae throughout the 10-day treatment period.
Water Quality
Parameters		Cultivation TimeChlorella vulgarisParachlorella kessleriTetradesmus obliquusHydrodictyon sp.Scenedesmus quadricauda
COD256.96254.43058.22858.22860.759
removal465.82362.02573.41762.02575.949
(%)683.54475.94978.48167.08983.544
886.07681.01382.27869.62087.342
1087.34282.27884.81073.41889.873
NH4-N243.46737.27265.49140.25857.518
Removal465.61852.92269.46243.58561.330
(%)666.30656.50171.19846.92965.121
871.17764.04072.06757.41275.699
1072.15275.70978.75967.62078.346
TN252.17055.15846.63247.93852.290
Removal455.25759.46051.34059.46057.156
(%)659.04464.04960.99360.75664.929
872.55569.89469.65764.01970.765
1073.45575.65074.46367.11577.500
TP245.23652.00454.67546.39456.322
Removal449.37754.36360.06250.75759.394
(%)657.70360.01862.95661.53272.752
870.25863.04564.47064.20373.731
1070.57066.78569.63573.59875.334
Table
Table 2. Maximum biomass concentration and maximum specific growth rate of five microalgae cultivated in the simulated domestic sewage during 10 days of cultivation time. All values are means of three independent experiments (n = 3).
Table 2. Maximum biomass concentration and maximum specific growth rate of five microalgae cultivated in the simulated domestic sewage during 10 days of cultivation time. All values are means of three independent experiments (n = 3).
Microalgal StrainMaximum Biomass Concentration
(mg L−1)		Maximum Biomass Concentration Time
(d)		Maximum Specific Growth Rate
(μmax, d−1)
Chlorella vulgaris413.333 ± 0.002 a30.401 a
Tetradesmus obliquus220.000 ± 0.001 b30.282 a
Parachlorella kessleri376.667 ± 0.001 a30.538 b
Hydrodictyon sp.273.333 ± 0.001 b30.353 a
Scenedesmus quadricauda213.333 ± 0.000 c30.439 a
Note: Values are means ± standard deviation, n = 3. Different superscript letters indicate significant differences (p < 0.05) in values of maximum biomass concentration or maximum specific growth rate of each microalgal species cultivated in the simulated domestic wastewater.
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Ji, L.; Ge, Q.; Li, Y.; Gao, Y.; Xie, S. A Comparative Study of the Growth and Nutrient Removal Effects of Five Green Microalgae in Simulated Domestic Sewage. Water 2021, 13, 3613. https://doi.org/10.3390/w13243613

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Ji L, Ge Q, Li Y, Gao Y, Xie S. A Comparative Study of the Growth and Nutrient Removal Effects of Five Green Microalgae in Simulated Domestic Sewage. Water. 2021; 13(24):3613. https://doi.org/10.3390/w13243613

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Ji, Li, Qili Ge, Yuan Li, Yifan Gao, and Shulian Xie. 2021. "A Comparative Study of the Growth and Nutrient Removal Effects of Five Green Microalgae in Simulated Domestic Sewage" Water 13, no. 24: 3613. https://doi.org/10.3390/w13243613

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